June 28, 2009

Stokely Carmichael – Part 9: Carmichael proclaims “Black Power” during Mississippi March against Fear

Continuation of “Stokely Carmichael – Part 8: The Radicalization of the SNCC under Carmichael’s leadership”

On June 16, 1966, during the Mississippi March against Fear Stokely Carmichael took the occasion to proclaim the  Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee’s change of direction. After each day’s march the leaders of the  participating civil rights organizations usually addressed the Black Mississippi residents.

Whereas the nonviolent integrationist Martin Luther King Jr. continued to appeal to white people’s conscience asking for “Freedom Now“, Stokely Carmichael addressed only the Black frustrated population (which after years of struggle had experienced only scarce progress of their living conditions and their rights) stressing that “… the only thing that’s gonna get us [blacks] freedom is power”.

When the march reached the city of Greenwood, where Carmichael had worked as a project director during the Mississippi Freedom Summer he felt that the moment was ripe to call out for “Black Power“.

Charlie Cobb, a fellow SNCC activist, has recalled the episode – Carmichael’s words and the crowd’s enthusiastic reaction – as follows:

Stokely Carmichael proclaims Black Power during Mississippi March against Fear

Stokely Carmichael proclaims Black Power during Mississippi March against Fear

… “we been saying freedom for six years and we ain’t got nothin’. What we gonna start saying now is Black Power!” [Carmichael] roared to amens, clapping, and stomping feet. He stood, eyes blazing, fist clenched with one finger pointing, like a wrathful prophet stepped straight from the pages of the Old Testament as Willie Ricks, a Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee organizer, leapt to the platform. “BLACK POWER!” Ricks began chanting, “BLACK POWER! What do you want?” “BLACK POWER!” the crowd responded with force that startled a press corps expecting to hear the tones of ‘we shall overcome’. And Stokely Carmichael exploded into the national consciousness.

To be continued…

April 29, 2009

Stokely Carmichael – Part 8: The Radicalization of the SNCC under Carmichael’s leadership

Stokely Carmichael - The Key Organizer of the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO) a.k.a. Lowndes County Black Panther Party

Stokely Carmichael - The Key Organizer of the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO) a.k.a. Lowndes County Black Panther Party

Continuation of Stokely Carmichael – Part 7: Carmichael becomes a Full-Time SNCC Activist

Through his leadership skills Stokely Carmichael rose to become the Lowndes County Black Panther Party’s key organizer. Gaining increasingly more responsibilty inside the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) Carmichael developed into one of its most decisive representatives.The party’s slogan “Power for Black People” left no doubt about the goals Carmichael intended to achieve. The activist demanded the attainment of political power for black people instead of continuing the integrationist efforts in order to become part of a system he regarded racist.

Most of the SNCC members agreed with Carmichael’s position characterized by an augmented „black consciousness” and subsequently by a paradigm shift – away from integrationism and towards „black nationalism” when in 1966 he was elected president. Replacing the “nonviolent apostle” John Lewis as leader of the SNCC Stokely Carmichael contributed decisively to the radicalization of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee.

The majority of the organization agreed with Carmichael’s stance. Having experienced similar atrocities and hate during their organizational activities in the Deep South they indeed disapproved with nonviolent tactics without any reservation. Carmichael, for whom nonviolence had always been a strategy, not a philosophy of life, declared:

“I don’t go along with this garbage that you can’t hate, you gotta love. I don’t go along with that at all. Man you can, you do hate. You don’t forget that Mississippi experience. You don’t get arrested twenty-seven times. You don’t smile at that and say love thy white brother. You don’t forget those beatings and, man, they were rough. Those mothers were out to get revenge. You don’t forget. You don’t forget those funerals. I knew Medgar Evers, I knew Willie Moore, I knew Mickey Schwerner, I knew Jonathan Daniels, I met Mrs. Liuzzo just before she was killed. You don’t forget those funerals”.

The radicalization of the SNCC furthermore manifested itself in a rising hostility towards white people. Some black members even demanded the expulsion of all the white members from the SNCC.

Stokely Carmichael’s attitude towards white people was more diplomatic. He asked the white members and sympathisers of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee to concentrate on their own white communities instead of working in the black southern ones. This is how he explained himself:

“You must seek to tear down racism. You must seek to organize poor whites. You must stop crying ‘Black supremacy’ [...] or ‘racism in reverse’ and face certain facts: that this country is racist from top to bottom and one group is exploiting the other. You must face the fact that racism in this country is a white, not a black problem. And because of this, you must move into white communities to deal with the problem“.

To be continued …

April 18, 2009

Stokely Carmichael – Part 7: Carmichael becomes a Full-Time SNCC Activist

[Continuation of "Stokely Carmichael - Part 6: Freedom Rides and White Backlash"]

Stokely Carmichael as a young activist in Lowndes County, AL.

Stokely Carmichael as a young activist in Lowndes County, AL.

… In 1964, after graduating from Howard University (majoring in philosophy) Stokely Carmichael refused to continue his academic career (there were various Phd offers) in order to become a full-time rebel joining the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).

In the same year the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) – organized by the SNCC and the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO) – had  failed to substitute the Mississippi’s “white-only” regular Democratic Party at the 1964 Democratic Party Convention.

Disillusioned with the Democratic Party’s rejection of the MFDP many SNCC  activist turned away from Integrationism and towards Black Nationalism.

Carmichael was among the majority of the SNCC activist who regarded superflous continuing the effort toward Integrationism. Tired of soliciting the White power structure’s favor Stokely Carmichael stressed the importance of founding Black Independent Parties.

Thanks to an Alabama State Law that supported the creation of Political Parties on a County Level it was possible to set up a completely autonomous black political party with the intent to bypass the local branches of the two established political parties.

The SNCC decided to set up the party in Lowndes  County – where Afro-Americans constituted 82% of the population as well as the majority of the registered voters – founding the Lowndes County Freedom Organization (LCFO).

Due to Alabama’s high illiteracy rate the above-mentioned state law prescribed every party to have a party symbol. Taking inspiration from a local college mascott the SNCC activists chose a black panther as their symbol bringing about the nickname Lowndes County Black Panther Party.

To be continued …


March 27, 2009

Sojourner Truth – Taking Inspiration from The Black Feminist Activist for a revaluation of the International Women’s Day

A few weeks ago, on March 8, women all over the world celebrated the “International Women’s Day“. In my hometown – Florence, Italy – groups of women were strolling around the historic district, enjoying the sunny day whilst celebrating their day.

But what were we celebrating? Indubitably, if we take a glance at the role of women inside the Italian society, reasons for celebrating are more than hard to find.

As opposed to the celebrating women, the more “committed” women, old and new feminist (obviously a minority in our society), were exposing theirselves on the national media. Quite ritualistically and with a known snivelling they addressed two types of chauvinism characterizing the Italian society.

An example for the first and older form of chauvinism consists in the fact that in 2009 still only a few women in Italy occupy deceisve positions exercising “power”. On the other hand a new type of chauvinism transpires if we, for example, consider the revisionist, prohibitive approach toward abortion laws.

Now, what are we women supposed to do? Let’s stop feeling sorry for ourselves and counting on men’s goodness in exercising power. Let us get our act together, unite and attack issues concerning our rights in a constructive manner!

Let the example of a strong and proud female force in American history, an model of a fighter, inspire us! I’m talking about Sojourner Truth.

Sojourner Truth

Sojourner Truth a.k.a. Isabella Baumfree

Sojourner Truth (1797 – 1883) was born a slave in the State of New York, but she never got intimidated or scared by prejudices concerning black women. On the contrary, after the abolition of slavery in NY, she travelled across the United States, becoming one of the most lively and inspiring speakers of the abolitionist cause, and not only. Sojourner Truth was also a woman who believed that the abolition of slavery – if it wasn’t accompanied by the women’s right to vote – would not have brought any real change in black women’s lives (”There is a great deal of stir about coloured men getting their rights but not a word about the coloured women’s theirs. You see, the coloured men will be masters over the women, and it will be just as bad as it was before”).

Thus, Truth became a promoter of a third type of struggle for a more civilized American society. Thanks to her, besides the struggle for equality of black people and the struggle for more women’s rights (promoted mainly by white women of the American middle-class) Sojourner Truth put the struggle of black women on the map. Think about it. Who suffered more prejudices than black women having to deal with a dual discrimination: a discrimination based on the color of their skin as well as on their sex?

The more discriminated the stronger she was! Accused of being a man, during a public speech, Sojourner Truth gave a undisputable proof of her “femininity” showing her breasts which had suckled her children. Strong women are not “true” women, are they?

That’s what “man” is about: if he has the power, he uses it, he won’t abdicate it. On the contrary, he will do whatever is necessary to keep it; if he suffers discrimation and prejudice, he becomes indignant for his own condition, but remains indifferent toward prejucides faced by other beings.

Therefore, Italian women, we shall read carefully Sojourner Truth’s most famous speech “Ain’t I a woman?“. We shall think about the force of this woman and take her as an example. Let us stand for our rights instead of whining and without begging men for more power and consideration.

“Well, children, where there is so much racket there must be something out of kilter. I think that ‘twixt the negroes of the South and the women at the North, all talking about rights, the white men will be in a fix pretty soon. But what’s all this here talking about?

That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me any best place! And ain’t I a woman? Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me! And ain’t I a woman? I could work as much and eat as much as a man – when I could get it – and bear the lash as well! And ain’t I a woman? I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me! And ain’t I a woman?

Then they talk about this thing in the head; what’s this they call it? [member of audience whispers, "intellect"] That’s it, honey. What’s that got to do with women’s rights or negroes’ rights? If my cup won’t hold but a pint, and yours holds a quart, wouldn’t you be mean not to let me have my little half measure full?

Then that little man in black there, he says women can’t have as much rights as men, ’cause Christ wasn’t a woman! Where did your Christ come from? Where did your Christ come from? From God and a woman! Man had nothing to do with Him.

If the first woman God ever made was strong enough to turn the world upside down all alone, these women together ought to be able to turn it back , and get it right side up again! And now they is asking to do it, the men better let them.

Obliged to you for hearing me, and now old Sojourner ain’t got nothing more to say”

Editor’s Note: This is a guest post by Roberta Danti, a graduate of the University of Florence’s Law School. Even though she majored in Fiscal Law writing a thesis on “The Abuse of EU VAT Law” she personally follows the most various issues touching the fields of law. This post was originally written in italian, once published in its orginal language I will provide my readers with the link.

March 25, 2009

Stokely Carmichael – Part 6: Freedom Rides and White Backlash

[Continuation of "Stokely Carmichael - Part 5: The Sit-in Movement and Howard University"]

… After having participated in various sit-ins during his freshman year at Howard University, Carmichael decided to take part in another form of nonviolent protest: the freedom rides.

As a nineteen-year-old college freshman Carmichael was one of the youngest freedom riders, but it should not remain his only record. Trying to desegregate a railway station in Jackson, Mississippi, the black activist set the record of being the youngest detainee in the summer of 1961.

White Backlash in a Birmingham Trailway bus station
White Backlash in a Birmingham Trailway bus station

The experience of his first detention (during his successive SNCC activities in the Deep South he would be arrested for another 26 times) was particularly sadistic. Carmichael spent 53 days in “a six-by-nine cell. Twice a week to shower. No books, nothing to do. They would isolate us. Maximum security”.

In his article “The Brilliancy of Black” (see my “Further Reading” section for more info)  Bernard Weinraub recalls a very illustrative description of the tortures Carmichael and the other detainees had to face in Jackson, Mississippi:

“[...] and those guards were out of sight. They did not play. [...] The sheriff acted like he was scared of black folks and he came up with some beautiful things. One night he opened up all the windows, put on ten big fans and an air conditioner and dropped the temperature to 38 degrees. All we had on was T-shirts and shorts. And it was so cold, so cold, all you could do was walk around for two nights and three days, your teeth chattering, going out of your mind, and it getting so cold that when you touch the bedspring you feel your skin is gonna come right off.”

Notwithstanding the inhumane treatment by the local and state authorities inside and outside of jail, not to mention the ferocious aggressions by the South’s white racist mobs, Stokely Carmichael did not hesitate to return to Mississippi the following summers joining the SNCC in its activities.

To be continued…

March 23, 2009

Stokely Carmichael – Part 5: The Sit-in Movement and Howard University

[Continuation of Stokely Carmichael - Part 4: The Stepladder Speakers’ Impact on the Soon-to-be Activist]

… In 1960, when Carmichael attended his senior year at Bronx Science, the sit-in movement broke out throwing the spotlight on racial segregation that still persisted in the South.

When Carmichaell heard about it in the beginning he was quite skeptical towards the young black activists who carried out the first sit-ins:

when I first heard about the Negroes sitting-in at lunch counters down South, I thought they were just a bunch of publicity hounds.”

After a few weeks Stokely Carmichael changed his opinion:

Student activists sitting-in at a lunch counter had to support shameful white backlash.

Student activists sitting-in at a lunch counter had to support shameful white backlash.

“[...] but one night when I saw those kids on TV, getting back up on the lunch counter stools after being knocked off them, sugar in their eyes, catsup in their hair – well, something happened to me. Suddenly I was burning“.

Carmichael decided to get involved. Together with other New Yorkers, he  joined a boycott of a Washington D.C Woolworth store. Shortly afterwards Carmichael accompanied a youth division of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) on a trip to Virginia where, during a sit-in, he met members of the Nonviolent Action Group (NAG), a student group from Howard University, affiliated to the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee.

In this occasion Carmichael was profoundly “impressed by the way they conducted themselves, the way they sat there and took the punishment,” to the point that he decided to decline various scholarship offers from prestigious universities in order to enroll to Howard University, a well known Negro School located in Washington D.C. , where Carmichael intended to join the Nonviolent Action Group.

To be continued…

March 10, 2009

Stokely Carmichael – Part 4: The Stepladder Speakers’ Impact on the Soon-to-be Activist

Continuation of Stokely Carmichael – Part 3: The Years at Bronx High School of Science

… On the streets of Harlem, more precisely on 125th street, Stokely Carmichael found what was missing in the white leftist world: a dynamic oratory concerning black nationalism and America’s racial problem. Both issues were addressed extensively by Harlem’s “stepladder speakers”, brilliant orators, who instructed their listeners on the history of black resistance and, more importantly, on the methods that needed to be adopted in the future.

To give my readers an idea of the Harlem Stepladder Speakers I uploaded an excerpt of Spike Lee’s “Malcolm X”, in which the camera swings from Malcolm X addressing a Harlem street crowd to two Stepladder Speakers.


Listening to the stepladder speakers Carmichael began to understand the enormous power of their rhetorical style, which he tried to absorb. In his biography Carmichael reports that “important elements of [his] adult speaking style-the techniques of public speaking in the dramatic African tradition of the spoken word, can be traced to these street corner orators of Harlem. To them and the Baptist preachers of the rural South”.

Moreover, the stepladder speakers with their black nationalist theories convinced Stokely Carmichael that the communists/socialists that supported black people inciting them to begin the “civil rights revolution” did so only because they needed an atmosphere  of chaos in order to raise a  systemic revolution.

To be continued…
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March 5, 2009

Stokely Carmichael – Part 3: The Years at Bronx High School of Science

Continuation of “Stokely Carmichael’s Youth – From Port of Spain to New York City”.

… In 1956 Carmichael broke with the past. Being an “[...] intellectually precocious child, he [had] found American education a breeze compared with the British-based rigors he’d experienced in the Trinidadian school system”. Passing a tough entrance test he was admitted to the elitist Bronx High School of Science. Here Stokely soon had to find out that his intellectual background could not compete with that of his fellow students. In his biography Carmichael reports that “[his] parents never finished school, we had no intellectual background. All these students’ fathers had been at Harvard, Yale, doctors, dentists, PHDs. They had what I didn’t have”. As opposed to the others at Bronx Science, Stokely did not know anything about Karl Marx nor was he familiar with notions such as “dialectical materialism“. Competition was tough and Stokely thought about quitting school during his freshman year, but his parents, especially his mother, believing firmly in the american dream “wouldn’t accept it though. She wanted me to go to Science and she would have it no other way. No questions asked. ‘Remember one thing,’ she would say, ‘they’re white, they’ll make it. You won’t unless you’re on the top“.

Carmichael listened to his parents and started to read voraciously all the books his fellow students had already read and were discussing during lunch break: in this way he became familiar with Marx and got to know Darwin’s theories and Camus’ philosophy. Stokely “tried to develop [his] own [intellectual background] just beginning to read as quickly as [he] could, anything that anybody mentioned”.

Stokely Carmichael frequented the highly competitive Bronx High School of Science

Stokely Carmichael frequented the highly competitive Bronx High School of Science

With the new school Carmichael’s interest and friends changed. His Morris Park buddies stemming from the white working-class were exchanged with new friends from the white upper middle-class. These guys were about to attend elité universities such as Harvard, Columbia or Brandeis. Among them was the son of Eugene Dennis who introduced him to New York’s left-wing social world and consequently to the European revolutinary theories, this is how Stokely recalled the impact:

For the first time I encountered a systematic radical analysis, a critical context and vocabulary that explained and made sense of history. It explained the inequities and injustice I’d long been conscious of in the society around me and prescribed (even predicted) revolutionary solutions.

Nevertheless, Stokely Carmichael never joined any socialist organization because American socialism did not ascribe importance to the solution of the black problem inside the American society, quite the contrary, “[...] they didn’t want any discussion of black nationalism”. Ivanhoe Donaldson, another young New Yorker and fellow SNCC activist, underlined Carmichael’s point clarifying the reason why the socialist organizations were not able to attract black people:

“Race drove us first. We recognized class but placed it differently. Everybody in our generation did. Even the white folks in SNCC had a little bit of black nationalism in them”.

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March 1, 2009

Stokely Carmichael – Part 2: Carmichael’s Youth, from Port of Spain to New York City

Stokely Standiford Churchill Carmichael was born in Trinidad in 1941. Since his mother Mabel Florence Charles Carmichael and his father Adolphus Carmichael both left Trinidad for the United States in search of work (respectively in 1944 and 1946) the young Stokely grew up at his grandmother’s house at Port of Spain. When in 1952 his parents were economically more secure Stokely was allowed to join his parents in Harlem, NY.

Stokely Carmichael - Born in Trinidad, grown up in New York City

Stokely Carmichael - Born in Trinidad he grew up in New York City

The first days in New York had a strong impact on Carmichael. Although a black community, Harlem displayed a visible contrast compared with Port of Spain, a contrast which bewildered the young boy: white people were in charge of the community, they held control. Policemen, teachers, merchants, entrepreneurs were all white. In contrast, in Trinidad, being 96% of the population black, it was natural to see black people holding crucial positions, such as policemen, teachers, attorneys, even if Trinidad was actually controlled by white colonists.

Thus, what seemed less evident to Carmichael in Trinidad, he was able to perceive taking a glance at the streets of New York: the black people’s status of second-class citizens in the United States, more generally the black man’s subjugation to “The Man”. Conscious of this matter of fact, Stokely Carmichael’s parents had a deep distrust toward white people.

Notwithstanding, “by back-breaking, around-the-clock-work, Carmichael’s parents (his father was a carpenter and his mother was a maid) succeeded in buying a house in a good [...] Bronx neighborhood.” The family moved to Morris Park, East Bronx, a predominantly white neighborhood (inhabited by Italians, Jews and Irish).

As an immigrant from the West Indies, and therefore a non-native American citizen, Carmichael “had to do all the bad things to prove his point”. In order to not become an outsider the adolescent became the only black member of the juvenile gang “Morris Park Dukes”. Due to his intelligence and cleverness he soon became a “specialist in stealing hubcaps and car radios”.

Continuation of text → Stokely Carmichael – Part 3: The Years at Bronx Science


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February 27, 2009

Stokely Carmichael – Part 1: The Initiator of Black Power

Stokely Carmichael at Berkeley.

Stokely Carmichael speaks at the University of California's Greek Theater, Berkeley, California, October 29, 1966, jammed with 14,000 people. (AP Photo)

This blog came primarily into being because I wanted to publish portions of my research on the black activist Stokely Carmichael and his rhetoric of Black Power.

I have always been fascinated by the strategic use of language and when I stumbled upon the following passage of Joshua Meyrowitz’s “No sense of Place” I decided to dedicate my attention to Carmichael’s rhetorical style.

“When Black Power advocate Stokely Carmichael found himself attracting media attention in the late 1960s, for example, his access to a larger social platform turned out to be a curse rather than a blessing. In the shared arenas of television and radio, he found himself facing at least two distinct audiences simultaneously: his primary audience of blacks, and an “eavesdropping” audience of whites. In personal (unmediated) appearances, he had been able to present two completely diffrent talks on Black Power to black and white audiences, respectively. But in the combined forums of electronic media, he had to decide whether to use a white or black rhetorical style and text. If he used a white style, he would alienate his primary audience and defeat his goals of giving blacks a new sense of pride and self-respect. Yet if he used a black rhetorical style, he would alienate whites, including many liberals who supported integration. With no clear solution, and unable to devise a composite genre, Carmichael decided to use a black style in his mediated speeches. While he sparked the fire of his primary audience, he also filled his secondary audience with hatred and fear and brought on the wrath of the white power structure”.

In my dissertation I analyzed and compared two speeches of the black activist, one addressed to a primarily black audience, the other one to a primarily white audience. My principal intention was to examine the distinctive characteristics of what the sociologist Joshua Meyrowitz referred to respectively as Carmichael’s black rhetorical style and white rhetorical style.

In order to support my analyses/interpretations of Carmichael’s critical discourses towards the United States I had to investigate in various directions, since the black activist not only accused the American social and political system for being permeated by racism, but stressed that even the nation’s cultural expressions upheld ‘white supremacy’.

In my next posts I will first of all introduce my readers to the person Stokely Carmichael and will successively concentrate on his political views before venturing on his public speeches.

Continuation of text → Stokely Carmichael – Part 2: Carmichael’s Youth, from Port of Spain to New York City

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